Transcript
Lynch: My name is Joseph Lynch. I'll be talking about how Netflix ensures highly reliable online stateful systems. I'm a Principal Software Engineer at Netflix working on our data platform. I work on essentially every online system that stores state that you can imagine. If it stores data, I probably work with it. I'm an Apache Cassandra committer. I've worked across multiple different storage engines over many years. I'd like to talk to you about making stateful systems reliable. To do that, first, I want to define what does that even mean? Because I think that if you asked people, they might say something like, that means you have a lot of nines. Who's heard that before? If you have a lot of nines, you're highly reliable. Why think that your customers probably don't care a whole lot about how many nines your datastore has. Instead, I think that they care, do the read and write operations succeed with the expected consistency model, so the semantics, within the designated latency service level objectives or goals? Always. A reliable stateful system has these properties. Instead of asking, how many nines do I have, instead, ask, how often do my systems fail? When they fail, how large is the blast radius? Then, finally, how long does it take us to recover from an outage. Then you're going to spend money to make these go to zero. Either you're going to overprovision computers, you're going to pay a cloud provider to solve these problems for you, or you're going to employ engineers to build cool resiliency techniques. Either way, this is the way that you make stateful systems reliable.
To drive this point home of why nines are insufficient, I want to consider three hypothetical stateful services. They all have equal number of nines. The first service fails just a little bit all the time, it never recovers. Maybe we need to invest in request hedging, or improving our tests to cover some bug. Service B occasionally fails cataclysmically. When service B fails, it recovers quickly but it still has a near 100% outage during that period. Perhaps we need to invest in load shedding or backpressure techniques. Finally, service C rarely fails, but when it does fail, it fails for a really long time. Maybe we didn't detect the issue. Maybe we need better alerting or failover support. Or perhaps you don't care about that service, and if it fails rarely, you'll just bulkhead it from the rest of your system and be ok with it. The point that I'm trying to make is that different failure modes in your stateful services require different solutions. Throughout the rest of this talk, we'll be exploring a multitude of techniques that we can use to try to make these properties go the direction that we want. We want less failure. When we do fail, we want to recover quickly, and we want to minimize the impact.
Netflix Online Stateful Scale
At Netflix, we use these techniques to reach very high scales of online stateful services. We have near caches, which live near to service hosts that handle billions of requests per second in sub-100-microsecond latency. We have remote caches based on Memcached that handles tens of millions of requests per second in 100-microsecond SLO targets, storing petabytes of data. Then, finally, the stateful databases under all of it is Apache Cassandra running in full 4-region active mode. In-region reader write consistency, single digit millisecond latency. We serve almost the entire planet except for a couple of places. We replicate our user state to four Amazon regions. This is a full active topology. Our video metadata is replicated even more, like if you actually look at the Open Connect CDN, it replicates state to hundreds of points of presence across the globe. We're going to focus in this talk on the AWS control plane that runs in those four Amazon regions.
Reliable Stateful Servers
We're going to combine three different chapters. We're going to see how we build reliable stateful servers. How we pair those with reliable stateful clients. Then, finally, how we can design our APIs to use all of those reliability techniques. We're going to cover five concepts in stateful servers. We're going to talk about sharding, capacity planning, rapid responses via rapid upgrades, and then two techniques we can use to use caching to improve our reliability. First and most fundamental at Netflix is that our applications do not share caches or datastores. My team, the data platform team provides a managed experience where developers can spin up and spin down datastores on-demand as they need them. We appropriately size them for each use case. Let's go back to that measurement technique. Before, when we had multi-tenant datastores that served multiple customers, we had rare failures that had large blast impact. When we moved to this technique, we now have more frequent failures but they have more isolated blast radius. You can see that already we're making some tradeoffs amongst those metrics that are appropriate for our business.
We don't want things to fail, so we want to make sure that each of these single tenant datastores is appropriately provisioned. That starts with capacity planning. It starts with understanding your hardware. For example, here, we've characterized two EC2 instances, and we've measured how quickly their disks can respond to real workloads. This is because less reliable disks, slower disks mean less reliable service. These are the foundations, this is the level of detail you have to go down to, in order to build up to a proper capacity model in order to minimize outages. For example, that little latency blip there on the p99 of that drive, that's no good. You're going to have SLO busters there. We have to combine this understanding of hardware with an understanding of our software. We program workload models per workload capacity models, which take into account a bunch of parameters about your workload, such as how many reads per second, or how large those reads are. Then we can use some fancy statistics, or a model that's good enough, I think, a good enough model to output a cluster of computers that we call the least regretful choice. When we provision that cluster, we're making a couple of tradeoffs. One of the ones that I want to call in particular, is that when we provision tier-3 datastores, we run those a lot hotter. We essentially save money on our tier-3s and our tier-2s. Then we spend it on our tier-0s. Our tier-0 datastores are overprovisioned relative to our expected workload. Those automatic capacity planning that we can continuously run on our database fleet allows us to shift risk around and save money on one part of our fleet and spend it to get reliability on another.
This also allows us to then take that cluster and replicate it to 12 Amazon availability zones spread across 4 regions. We do this for a few reasons. One of the most important ones is that we want to ensure that all of our microservices have local zone access to their data. Because as we'll see throughout this talk, if you can keep no network connection, that's the best. No network communication, most reliable. If you have to make a network call, make it in your local zone. If you have to cross zones, keep it in your region. Then, finally, sometimes you do have to go across region. Also, this allows us to have very highly reliable writes and read operations because we can use quorums to accept writes in any region. By having three copies in every region, we are able to provide a very high level of reliability. This minimizes the times that there are outages. Sometimes we have to fail over. This is a little diagram that shows the running Netflix system. At least at Netflix, most of our money is spent on our stateless services. We actually don't spend as much money on our stateful services as we do on our stateless ones. They're provisioned, typically, to handle around x over 4 of global traffic. Then, when U.S.-East-1 fails, because it's U.S.-East-1, we have to fail out of that region. At Netflix, our resiliency team has built an amazing capability to evacuate an Amazon region in single digit minutes, we can have all of the traffic out of that region. That's a problem for your datastores because they have to be ready to absorb a 33% hit of new traffic instantaneously. That's even a problem for your stateless services because they can't autoscale that fast. You have to reserve headroom.
Specifically with this architecture, you have to reserve 33% headroom. This actually is pretty ok, because the alternative where we shard our databases, and we run two copies instead of four, in that alternative, we have to reserve a lot more headroom. Specifically, we have to reserve 100% headroom. We have to prebuy a lot more reserved instances from Amazon for our stateless. We have to run continuously a lot more for our stateful if we were to copy the data less. This might not match your business. At least in Netflix's case, paying that money to replicate the state is actually worth it, both in terms of reliability and because we can recoup the costs on stateless.
Sometimes even with all this capacity planning and sharding, bad things happen. When they do, you want to be able to deploy software and hardware quickly. For me, a lot of the reliability issues happen because of software that we write. We've carved mutation seams into our stateful images to allow us to more rapidly change software that doesn't affect the availability of the system. Specifically, we've factored it into three components. We have the components in yellow, which we change frequently for software that we write like configuration agents or monitoring agents. We change them frequently, but they do not affect the availability of the datastore because we don't have to bring down the Cassandra process or the Memcached process or what have you in order to change these. There's no reliability impact. We can change these quite quickly. We couple the stateful process and the OS kernel together. Because if we have to upgrade, for example, Linux, we're going to have to bring down the datastore image. When we do that, we're taking a risk. Because remember earlier I talked about quorums, if we take down one member of the quorum, we're running a risk, we could go down. We want to do this as fast as possible. We've released both a blog post as well as I've given a talk in the past about how we're able to do this in mere minutes, going from one EC2 AMI to another atomically, similar to like a live CD, or Petitboot.
Then, finally, we have the state. This is the most problematic part of a stateful service. You don't want to touch it that often. If you have to move state around, you're going to have low reliability. Why is that? One reason is because of the bathtub curve. Every time that we move our state to a new instance, we're taking a chance that that instance will fail young. The bathtub curve refers to hardware typically fails young and old. If we've got a good reliable database host, we really want to hold on to it, we don't want to let go of it. If we do have to do that, we want to move the state as fast as possible. At Netflix we use snapshot restoration, where we suck down backups from S3 as fast as humanly possible onto new hot instances. Then we just share the deltas as we switch over. This does have a major reliability impact. Before I get to how we can minimize some of that reliability impact, I want to talk about monitoring. Because when you have stateful services, you have to care about how your drives are doing. At Netflix, when we're launching those new instances, I mentioned the bathtub curve, we're going to burn in the disks. We're going to make sure that they can handle the type of load that we're going to put on them. We call these pre-flight checks. Essentially, it's like a little checklist of like, can I talk to the network? Can I talk to the disk? Is the disk capable of responding in under a millisecond?
Then, continuously, we're monitoring errors and latency. These systems of monitoring, throw away thousands of EC2 instances on our fleet every year. Why might I do that? Because these things are just pending reliability problems. If your drive is degrading, it's going to fail. If a drive fails, you're going to have a bad day. It would be better to get off of it earlier. That doesn't just apply to your hardware. It also applies to your software. Who has had a Java program go into an endless garbage collection death spiral? At Netflix, because we run so many JVM datastores like Elasticsearch and Cassandra, we run into what we call queries of death fairly frequently. What we did was we attached a monitoring agent to every JVM in our stateful fleet. That monitoring agent detects this condition within about two seconds. If our JVM has entered this death spiral, it immediately takes a heap dump, puts it in S3 so that we can analyze it later, and remediates the incident, it kills the process. In practice, this reduced 2000-plus SLO violations at Netflix in the first year that we deployed it. Because over the course of a year, when you have 2000-plus clusters, bad stuff happens, so you want to recover quickly. Little agents like these aren't hard to add to your processes.
Let's say that we've invested in all these things, and even then, we still have to be careful how quickly we do maintenance. On the x axis of this graph, we have how often we do maintenance on the Cassandra fleet. In the gray box, there are some parameters of this simulation, 2000 clusters, between 12 and 192 nodes. On the y axis we have how many outages we expect to cause through our maintenance. We can see using the naive data streaming approach where we move state between instances, we can only really do about quarterly maintenance before we start accepting more than one outage related to this maintenance per year. In contrast, if we can send data faster than we can get to monthly maintenance, we're able to image our fleet even faster without causing too many outages. If we decouple compute from state and use EBS volumes and execute state movements with EBS swaps, we can get even farther.
Ultimately, to get to something like weekly level changes, or being able to roll out software changes faster, we need to use that in-place imaging technique that I talked about earlier. As far as I'm aware, this is the best way to do this. I'm super curious if anybody has other ways. At Netflix, we've taken this journey starting at the red, and then over time moving to the green so that we can recover faster from software issues.
Next, I'd like to talk about caching. Because at Netflix we treat caches like these materialized view engines. Services, if you think about it, they're really performing complicated, almost joins. They're talking to multiple datastores. They're running business logic. They have some output of that computation. That output at least at Netflix doesn't change that often. We put it in a cache, and then most read operations hit that cached view. Whenever the underlying data of that service changes the service recalculates the cache value and fills that cache. Some of you I hear what you're saying, you're going, no, the cache could go down. That is true. However, at Netflix, we've invested in making our caches highly reliable, for example, investing in things like cache warming. If a node fails, we repopulate it with the cached data before it goes into service, and by replicating it to every availability zone, so that if clients miss in one zone, they can retry against another. In practice, these caches are essentially your service at that point. Memcached can handle orders of magnitude more traffic than a Java service can.
One antipattern that we discourage is putting caches in front of datastores. Instead, we prefer to put them in front of the service. Because a cache in front of the service protects the service, which is at least for us, usually, the thing that fails first. The cache is cheap relative to the service. Stateless apps are quite expensive to operate. This technique can help us improve reliability by decreasing the amount of load that the datastores have to handle. It does shift load to caches, but like I mentioned, those are easier to make reliable. We can actually take this technique even further and move all the data into the client, we call this total near caching. Netflix has written a series of blog posts about this, as well as has an open source project called Hollow. The way this works is that the source of truth datastore isn't even involved in the read path. All that it does is publish a snapshot up to some blob store like S3 through the producer. Then the video metadata service in this case, starts applying the delta to the in-memory dataset that it has, and then can atomically swap over from version 1 of the dataset to version 2. At Netflix, we like to treat Hollow almost like Git, but for your configuration data. This is the service that can handle billions of requests per second, because there is no network call, it's all local to in-memory. It's great. The more things that you can fit in this the better.
Reliable Stateful Clients
We've seen a number of techniques for how to make reliable stateful servers. None of those are any use if your clients are doing the wrong things. Let's dive in to how to make reliable stateful clients. We're going to cover six concepts. We're going to talk about signaling, service level objectives per namespace and access pattern, hedged requests, exponential backoff, load unbalancing, and concurrency limits. Let's start with signals, because at Netflix there historically was a big debate about tuning the timeouts and client tuning. What we realized on stateful services was that you can't really set the correct timeout. Instead, you need to know who the client is, what shard of what datastore they're talking to, and what data they're trying to access. Then from those, you can deduce the service level objectives. In this example at the top box, we have a client that's saying, I'd like to talk to the KeyValueService, the napa shard of that service in U.S.-East-1. In the bottom, we're talking to a TimeSeries abstraction, hosting a totally different shard. Those signals start returning information to the client. For example, they might tell the client, I'd like you to chunk large payloads. Large payloads are really hard to make reliable, because you don't know, is the network slow, or is it dropping packets? It's difficult when you're transmitting multi-megabytes of data at once to know if it's latency or expected. In contrast, if the client chunks information to smaller pieces of work, you can individually retry and hedge those individual pieces of work. You can make progress in parallel. You can also go further and just compress stuff. At Netflix, we've used LZ4 compression from our stateful clients to compress large payloads before they're sent. In practice, this reduces bytes sent by between 2x and 3x. Fewer bytes is more reliable. Why? Because every packet you send is an opportunity for a 200 millisecond SLO buster, when the Linux kernel waits a minimum of 200 milliseconds to retry that packet. If you can send fewer bytes, you're going to have more reliability. Compression helps you with that. It also adds useful things like checksumming and other useful properties.
Finally, I want to talk about SLOs. Because in that signal's endpoint, the services, the KeyValueService on the left and the TimeSeries Service on the right are going to communicate with the client, "This is what I think your target service level objective should be, and this is what the maximum should be." You can think of target as like the number that we're going to use hedges and retries to try to hit, and then max is like, after this, just timeout and go away. We're also going to communicate the current concurrency limits. The server is saying, client, you're allowed to hedge 50 concurrent requests against me, you're allowed to send 1000 normal requests. If you're interested about hedge requests, I highly recommend a wonderful article from Jeff Dean at Google called, "The Tail at Scale." The general gist is that you send the request multiple times and whoever answers first, you take earlier. We can also tune these SLOs based on the particular namespace they're trying to access. For example, in this case, we have two namespaces that are actually pointing at the same data, but one of them presents eventual consistency and the other one presents READ_YOUR_WRITE consistency. Eventual consistency can have a sub-millisecond latency SLO. It's really hard to make a READ_YOUR_WRITES consistency model sub-millisecond. The SLO on the left can be stronger than the SLO on the right.
It actually gets a little more complicated. It's not just the namespace, it's also the client and their observed average latency. For example, if we have client A, and they're making GET requests against namespace 1, if they're observing 1 millisecond latency, then that means that in order to hit the SLO of 10 milliseconds, we're going to have to send a hedge around 9 milliseconds. The same client might be doing PUT requests, and those are averaging 1.5 milliseconds. We have to hedge a little bit earlier, if we want to try to hit that 10 millisecond SLO. On the other hand, scan requests are real slow, they have an SLO of around 100 milliseconds. We don't want to hedge until 77 milliseconds after that. Finally, client B might continuously be getting above the SLO latency, in which case hedging isn't going to help you. Hedging is just a strategy to help you meet the SLO. If you're always missing the SLO, there's no point in doubling the load to your backend, just to try to meet something that you will fail at. This leads to what I call the three zones of dynamic hedging timeouts. The first zone is the zone of hope. This is the part where the client is observing latencies that are significantly under the SLO, specifically under half. Once you get to half, though, you're now hedging 50% of your work, roughly. This is the part where you have to make a decision. You could either really try hard to make the SLO. This is the zone of last-ditch attempts. You could try really hard to make the SLO, in which case you're going to be provisioning your backend for 50-plus percent extra load. Or you could just say like, let's back off a bit and give the backend some room. At Netflix, when we hit the SLO itself, we back off entirely. This is because at least for us, when the backend service is on average above your SLO, there's probably something wrong, and hedges probably aren't going to help you out. You can see that in these three zones, we need to use different approaches to how we hedge against the downstream services, depending on whether we're likely to get a positive result.
We also have to be really careful when we're hedging requests. We have to use concurrency limiting to prevent too much load going to our backend services. Let's walk through an example. In this case, client 1 sends two requests to server 1, which immediately goes into garbage collection pause because it's Java. At that point, client 1 weights the SLO minus the average, and then says, ok, I'd like to hedge against server 2, maybe it'll respond to me. At that point, it puts a hedge limiter in place. That 50 number we saw earlier, in this example, it's 1. We're allowing one outstanding hedge. When the client1 tries to hedge request B, instead of allowing that hedge to go through, we say, there might be something wrong with the backend, let's just wait for it. Once we get the response back from server2 to request A, now the hedge limiter lifts, and a subsequent PUT from client1 to server1 is allowed to speculate. We can see in this example, if we had done nothing, all three of these requests would have hit that latency busting 24 millisecond GC Pause. Because of this hedging system, we were able to rescue two or three requests. This goes back to that, in this case, we couldn't prevent the issue, we did have some SLO violation, but we minimized the impact. Fewer requests violated the SLO.
We can use similar techniques to make GC tolerant timeouts. If I'm implementing a naive timeout, I might set a single asynchronous future at 500 milliseconds. Then at the end of 500 milliseconds, I throw an exception. In our stateful clients, we use what we call GC tolerant timers, which is where we chain 4 async futures 125 milliseconds apart, the exact numbers don't matter, you could do 3, you could do 2. What matters though, is that it's more than one. This creates essentially a virtual clock that's resilient to that client1 pausing. Let's do an example where client1 sends a request to a stateful service, the service actually responds, but because that client was garbage collecting when it was responding, a naive timer would incorrectly throw an exception when it wakes up from the garbage collection. Contrast that with our GC tolerant timer, which correctly returns the result and does not pollute our logs with an incorrect error that misleads our investigators. Before we implemented this, we spent a significant amount of time tracking down services that thought their data source were slow, when in reality, their caches were actually quite fast, their key-value stores were quite fast, but their service was under load. This technique doesn't again make the problem go away, but it does help you resolve it faster by preventing your operators from getting distracted. Then, finally, sometimes things are going to break and you're going to get load shedding. When that happens, we do allow a retry against stateful services, we allow really just one retry. Although it is implemented generically to more than one. We use a slightly modified capped exponential backoff algorithm. The only real modification that's worth pointing out here is that the first retry happens relevant to that SLO target. You can see how having those SLOs is allowing us to more intelligently retry against our backends. If we didn't have those service level objectives, then we would have to take something that would probably mess up with our SLOs more frequently.
It wouldn't be nice, though, if we didn't send any requests to that slow server in the first place. That's where load balancing, or I like to say, load unbalancing comes into play. At the bottom here, we have a bunch of resources about different load balancing strategies, including a simulation where you can reproduce these numbers. The end result is that the typical load balancing algorithms like random load balancing or round robin load balancing, they don't actually work very well at avoiding slow servers. Instead, a lot of people at Netflix use choice of 2, the power of two random choices. We've actually recently rolled out, at Netflix, an improvement on choice of 2 called weighted choice of n. The way that works is by exploiting a priori knowledge about networks in the cloud. Specifically, this is three zones in U.S.-East-1, and those are the latencies between them. We know that because we have a replica of data in every zone, if we send the request to the same zone, we're going to get a faster response. We don't need anybody to tell us that. We know it, we can measure it. All we have to do is weight requests towards our local zone replica. We want this to degrade naturally, so like, what if we only have two copies, or what if we are in the wrong zone? Instead of just having a strict routing rule, we take our concurrency, and instead of just picking the two that have the less concurrency, we weight the concurrency by these factors. This sounds pretty cool. Does it work? Yes, it works really well. This is an example of us running a synthetic load test where we took a Cassandra client that was doing local1 reads, and we moved it from our weighted least load balancer algorithm to the out of the box trace of 2. Immediately we regressed from 500 microsecond latencies to 800 microsecond latencies. I'll point something out, that's client-side latency, that's sub-millisecond latency from a database client to its server. This looked pretty positive, so we were like, we should put it in production. We saw a bunch of graphs like this, just dropping off a cliff. This is fantastic. We love it when our theory matches our measurement, matches production. If you're curious to learn more, we talked about this at ApacheCon last year, and I've left links at the bottom.
Let's put all these techniques together. Let's look at a real-world KeyValueService issue, which did not turn into an incident. At time t1 at 7:02 a.m., an upstream client of this KeyValueService suffers a retry storm, and their traffic instantly doubles. Within 30 seconds, our additive increase, multiplicative decrease server concurrency limiters are shutting load off of the server trying to protect the backend from the sudden load spike. Meanwhile, those client hedges and exponential retries we talked about are mitigating the impact. This is such a small impact that we're not violating any of our user visible SLOs at this point. The only problem that we have is that high latency impact. That's because we went from 40% utilization to 80% utilization in 10 seconds. Finally, our server autoscaling system restores our latency SLO. This whole process from the client load doubling, to our server limiters tripping, to our client hedges and exponential retries mitigating, to the server autoscaling and finally restoring the SLO, takes about five minutes. There's no human involved here. Everything happened as expected. We had an issue. We mitigated the impact. We recovered quickly. No human was involved.
Reliable Stateful APIs
I made a pretty important assumption when I was talking about hedging, and retrying, and breaking down work. What was that assumption? I assumed that the work was idempotent. That's actually pretty tricky to build into your stateful APIs. I also assumed that your stateful APIs provided a fixed unit of work capability. Both of those have to be designed into your stateful APIs. Let's see how that works in the real world, and we'll motivate it with two real-world production examples in our KeyValueService and our TimeSeries service. Assume you have to retry, how do you make your mutable API safe? The answer is idempotency tokens. Who has used Stripe to charge a credit card? The way that works so that you don't double charge your credit card is using an idempotency key. The client generates a unique ID that associates with that transaction. Even if the device has to retry it multiple times, you don't have multiple charges. In concept, this is pretty simple, you generate some token. You send it with your mutative endpoint. Then if something bad happens, you just retry with the same idempotency token. You have to make sure that the backing storage engines implement this idempotency.
Let's dive in and understand what kinds of tokens we might need. At Netflix, an idempotency token is generally a tuple of a timestamp and some form of token. Depending on the backend, these things are going to change. Let's look at the simplest one. At Netflix we use a lot of Apache Cassandra. Apache Cassandra uses last write wins to duplicate things. As long as we send mutations with the same timestamp, they will deduplicate. We can use client monotonic timestamps, in this case, a microsecond timestamp with a little bit of randomness mixed into the last character just to prevent a little bit of duplication, and a random nonce. The combination of this uuid4 and a timestamp uniquely identifies that mutation. If we have a more consistent store, we might need to make a global monotonic timestamp within the same region. Perhaps we're reaching out to a ZooKeeper cluster to acquire some lease, or perhaps we're using a store like FoundationDB, which has a central timestamper. Then, finally, the most consistent option is to take a global transaction ID. That's how a lot of transactional datastores work, for example, like MySQL or Postgres, where they actually associate a global transaction ID with a mutation. You have to somehow encapsulate that transaction ID or move it into your data model so that you can retry against those stores. Transactions don't magically make your database isolated or idempotent. You have to actually put it in your data model and think about, I might have to retry this right, how would that look?
These three different options have a different consistency-reliability tradeoff. On the x axis here, we have the level of how strongly consistent we are, ranging from not at all consistent, all the way up to global linearizability. At the y axis we have the reliability of that technique. We'll notice that the regional isolated tokens and the global isolated tokens have problems. Why do I say that they're less reliable? It's because they require communication across the network. A client monotonic clock requires no network connectivity for you to generate the next token. Contrast that with a local region token where you need at least a quorum in a region to vote, or a global one where you have to talk across a WAN network. At Netflix, we tried as much as possible to have client monotonic clocks. If you can make it less consistent, make it less consistent. Nobody knows if the recommendations at Netflix are the right recommendations at Netflix. Don't bring down your service trying to get a global linearizable clock to use in your transactions.
I am going to be a little bit contrarian though, because earlier we heard about how clocks are problematic. If the clocks are outside of the cloud, I agree with that. However, we actually measured this. Across the Cassandra fleet at Netflix, over 25,000 virtual machines across over 20 instance families all with Nitro cards on them though, and we did not observe clock drifts beyond 1 millisecond. The only time that we observed clock drifts above 1 millisecond nonmonotonic was when VMs booted. The first about 2 to 3 minutes of a VM's life, it has an inaccurate clock. Then after that, it's accurate. How does this work? Atomic clocks, pretty cool. EC2 in every availability zone maintains a highly accurate clock source. Then using their Nitro system, they give your VM direct access to it. When I set out to write this memo, it was because the Cassandra community was proposing using clocks in a strongly consistent method. I was like, no, everybody in distributed systems know that clocks don't work. Then we measured it. It turns out, they actually work pretty well. Surprising, unexpected, but it turns out accurate. I highly encourage you, if you are building a system based on clocks, measure, see what happens.
We've seen the concepts. How does this actually work in reality? Let's dive into some examples of real-world APIs using these concepts. We're going to start with the KeyValue Abstraction, which at Netflix offers developers a stable HashMap as a service, a two-level HashMap, and exposes a pretty simple crud interface. You can write items to the store, you can delete them, you can read them, and then you can scan all of the items across the entire outer map. Let's dive in. Let's look at PutItems. We can see immediately the idempotency token pops right out. The first required argument to write data to a store is you have to have an idempotency token, generated via one of those methods that we talked about earlier. We also see that in our list of items there's a chunk number, and that facilitates the clients splitting up large payloads into multiple small ones, and then followed by a commit. On the read side, we see the same breaking down of work. A GetItems response does not guarantee that you will receive 1000 items, or 2000 items. Instead, it attempts to return a fixed size of data. This is because we want to be able to retry each component. You might say, gRPC, shouldn't you be using streaming? That's what we thought too. It didn't work very well. The reason it didn't work very well is because all of those resiliency techniques I talked about where you can retry individual pieces of work, and you can hedge and you can speculate, and you can retry, they don't work in a streaming API. Instead, we've shifted almost all of our stateful APIs to paginated APIs that return fixed amounts of data. Then the client has to explicitly request the next page. This also has nice backpressure effects, where if the client isn't asking for the next page, the datastore does not preemptively return it.
This does lead to one interesting failure mode, though, which is that because most storage engines implement pagination based on number of rows, and we want to implement pagination in terms of size, we have this mismatch, where the server might do many round trips to the datastore in order to accumulate a page, so many round trips that we actually bust the SLO. That's pretty easy, because we know what the SLO is, so we can just stop paginating. At no point did our API promise that we would return a fixed amount of work, or that we perform a fixed number. Instead, we'd rather present progress to the client, and then let the client request the next page if they need it. In many cases, they're just asking for the first item. Finally, let's look at scan. Scan is just like GET, except that there's no primary key. The only interesting thing in this API is that when you when you initiate a scan, the KeyValueService dynamically computes how many concurrent cursors it releases to that client. That's the repeated StringValue next_page. For example, if the backend system is lowly loaded, then it might return a high concurrency like 16 concurrent cursors, that then the client could consume quite quickly. If a lot of clients are scanning, then it will only return a small number of cursors. This has a natural backpressure effect, where if a bunch of clients show up and start full table scanning this namespace, the KeyValueService protects itself, and it rate limits how quickly they can scan.
Let's wrap it up. How do we put it all together? On the right side, we saw that idempotency token in use to deduplicate. In this case, the backend is some storage engine that implements the last write wins use case, so the timestamp is sufficient. We were able to chunk and break down large writes. On reads, we returned pages of work within this service level objective. We do not offer a service level objective across all pages. Because at least at Netflix, people can store gigabytes in a single key in our key-value store, we can't offer an SLO on how quickly we'll return gigabytes. We can offer a throughput SLO, which is a proxy for that individual page size limit. If you take that size and multiply it by the number of pages, that's your throughput SLO. I think a key insight here is that we're focusing on fixed size work, not fixed count work. As we mentioned earlier, every byte that we transmit either in writes or in reads is an opportunity for failure. That's a nice example. You might say, that's just one key-value API, what about other APIs? It turns out you can use these techniques in general. For example, at Netflix we have the TimeSeries Abstraction. This stores all of our trace information, PDS log files which are like playback log logs that tell us that somebody hit play. Just to demonstrate the scale of the service, this service handles between 20 and 30 million events per second, fully durably with retention for multiple weeks. That's how the customer service agents know that your TV had that really odd error at 2:00 while you were watching Bridgerton.
How does this system work? We have our write EventRecords endpoint which takes a list of event records, and nowhere in this event record do we see an idempotency token. I promise you it's there, just look a little closer. On the read side, it looks just like the GetItems. We have GetItems on the top and we have scan on the bottom, essentially reader specific event stream or read all of them. The idempotency token in this service is actually built into the contracted TimeSeries. Specifically, if you provide an event that has the same event time and the same unique event ID, then the backend storage of this deduplicates that operation. While it's not called an idempotency token, it's using the same concept. On the read side, again, we see that breaking down of a potentially very large response into multiple pages that can be consumed progressively. The one thing that I'd like to touch on on this service is that because of the massive scale here, developers asked us for an additional level of reliability. They were willing to trade off significant amounts of consistency in order to get it. Specifically, that's that operation load on the left there which we all fire and forget, where the only thing that the TimeSeries client does is enqueue it into a buffer, and goes like, "Ok, I'm done." It doesn't even wait until it gets off the box. Is this durable? No. Would most database people say that that is an acceptable thing? Probably not. Our users really love that that could handle 20 million writes per second, and it worked all the time. They didn't care if we dropped one service trace out of billions in that minute.
We do offer more consistent and less reliable options as we go to the left. For example, we can say, we'll let you know when we have it enqueued into our in-memory queue on the TimeSeries server, or we'll respond back to you once it is durable in storage. We can see again how depending on what your customer need, you can be more reliable by trading off consistency, or if they needed that consistency, you could just spend a lot of money. That's another valuable way to get the type of reliability that you need. Let's wrap it with TimeSeries. Again, we see the idempotency token on writes. We see multiple modes of acknowledgement. In this particular service we just ban large events. We can't write large events to this, larger than 4 megabytes. Then reads return with pages within the SLO. Fixed size work, not fixed count.
With that, we've seen how we can make modifications to our stateful APIs to be able to use those client and server techniques that we covered earlier. I hope that some of these might help you improve the reliability of your stateful services.
Questions and Answers
Participant 1: How do we firstly enable technologies for the hedging and with the trace routing?
Lynch: The generic answer would be something like a service mesh, because that would allow you to implement those techniques once centrally in your proxy that does egress routing. You could implement your load balancing policy. That particular weighted trace event, that requires a little bit more metadata because we need to know information about where data is stored. It's a little bit more complex to make generic, but you can do it. Hedging is very easy to make generic. You can throw that in service meshes. You can throw it in some generic IPC library that you distribute to all your clients. Hedging is easiest to implement in a language that has proper async futures, so like Rust, or Java, or C++ with futures. It's really hard to implement in something like Python, although you can do it. That's one of the reasons why I think I would probably lean towards some external sidecar that implements those resiliency techniques centrally.
Participant 2: Do you have any strategies for these server-side handling of the idempotency tokens?
Lynch: Many datastores have a built-in idempotency technique. For example, Apache Cassandra is last write wins. As long as you could present a mutation with the same timestamp. Other cases are more difficult and usually involve some form of data modeling. For example, let's say you've got a transactional SQL store, you could implement idempotency by doing a transaction like a compare insert operation. Insert this if it doesn't already exist. Insert if not exists is an idempotent operation. It's definitely per storage engine. If you're using Elasticsearch, the way that you implement idempotency for Elasticsearch is different from Cassandra which is different from Postgres.
Participant 2: At the app store, or datastore where there is a bit of like a serverless layer, or something?
Lynch: That's actually one of the reasons why Netflix has been moving towards these online stateful abstractions. The KeyValue and TimeSeries Abstraction that I presented, one of their core reasons of being is to implement those idempotency techniques for people. When you send mutations to the KeyValueService or to the TimeSeries service, it handles like, I'm talking to DynamoDB, this is how DynamoDB does idempotency. I'm talking to Cassandra, this is how Cassandra implements idempotency. Although you certainly could do that in libraries, I just think it would be more difficult to maintain.
Participant 3: You mentioned decommissioning a couple thousand servers a year, in AWS that just means you give that back. Do you communicate that to AWS, or you just leave it for us blips to consume everything?
Lynch: It mostly comes back to us, actually. The first technique that we use is that we detach but don't terminate yet. From an autoscaling group, we detach the instance but we don't terminate it. That reserves it out of the pool. Amazon gives us a new instance which hopefully is healthy, then we release that one. It just goes back into the pool. The pre-flight checks help us not get it back. This is especially a problem for narrowly constrained instance families. For example, back when we used a lot of D2s, it was very common for us to get the same D2 back. That's actually why we added the pre-flight checks because the pre-flight checks on our end would reject that hardware from reentering the fleet.
Participant 3: You store records inside [inaudible 00:46:10] or something?
Lynch: As far as I'm aware, there is no durable way to know that a new Amazon instance is an old one. If you have one instance ID and then you terminate it, and Amazon hands you back a new one, I'm not aware of how to know that it is degraded. We have talked with AWS about how to improve this communication capabilities. It would be nice if they had an API where we could be like, our monitoring systems have detected this degraded hardware. One thing I can say is that EC2 actually already knows a lot times that that drive is degraded, they just can't pull it because there's a user workload on it. Then you gather from their perspective, they don't know if you're using the drive. They might know that it's throwing all these IO errors, but they don't know if your workload cares about that, so they're not going to just turn off your workload. In practice, Amazon actually catches a lot of that on their own.
Participant 4: You were talking about designing an API and designing clients and probably some [inaudible 00:47:21]. Are you usually providing like a set of APIs to the good uses of the stateful services, or they're going to use stateful services the right way, how that relationship seems to work.
Lynch: We target an 80/20, so about 80% of services at Netflix go through those abstraction layers, in which case we offer them a lot of guarantees around API compatibility. About 20% of users do go directly to storage engines, in which case we send them the 25-page memo on like this is how you implement idempotency, this is how you don't kill this datastore, this is how you do backups. A lot of folks do want that level of control at Netflix, and so we do give them that freedom. Although it is an 80/20. About 20% of users do direct data access and manage their own implementations of some of these. We do provide datastore client libraries as well, in all major supported languages. We definitely push people towards the APIs that we know have all the idempotency and resiliency techniques that we think are important. There are cases where, for example, we've worked to get some of these resiliency techniques. I'm actually working with a colleague right now to get that load balancer into the open source Cassandra driver, so we do sometimes bring that back to the open source community. It can be challenging because a lot of these techniques, when you don't have a requirement for really high reliability, a lot of them don't make sense to pay the engineering complexity. It makes sense for NASA to invest in reliability. If you're showing cat pictures, maybe it doesn't.
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